Temporal and spatial distribution of epibenthic dinoflagellates in the Kattegat-Skagerrak, NE Atlantic-Focus on Prorocentrum lima and Coolia monotis.

Epibenthic dinoflagellates occur globally and include many toxin-producing species of concern to human health and benthic ecosystem function. Such benthic harmful algal blooms (BHABs) have been well described from tropical and sub-tropical coastal environments, but assessments from north temperate waters, e.g., northern Europe, and polar regions are scarce. The present study addressed the biodiversity and distribution of potentially toxic epibenthic dinoflagellate populations along the west coast of Sweden (Kattegat-Skagerrak) by morphological and molecular criteria. Morphological analysis conducted by light- and electron-microscopy was then linked by DNA barcoding of the V4 region of 18S rRNA gene sequences to interpret taxonomic and phylogenetic relationships. The presence of two potentially toxigenic epibenthic dinoflagellates, Prorocentrum lima (Ehrenberg) F.Stein and Coolia monotis Meunier was confirmed, along with a description of their spatial and temporal distribution. For P. lima, one third of the cell abundance values exceeded official alarm thresholds for potentially toxic BHAB events (>1000 cells gr(-1) of macroalgae fresh weight). The same species were recorded consecutively for two summers, but without significant temporal variation in cell densities. SEM analyses confirmed the presence of other benthic Prorocentrum species: P. fukuyoi complex, P. cf. foraminosum and P. cf. hoffmannianum. Analyses of the V4 region of the 18S rRNA gene also indicated the presence P. compressum, P. hoffmannianum, P. foraminosum, P. fukuyoi, and P. nanum. These findings provide the first biogeographical evidence of toxigenic benthic dinoflagellates along the west coast of Sweden, in the absence of ongoing monitoring to include epibenthic dinoflagellates. Harmful events due to the presence of Coolia at shellfish aquaculture sites along the Kattegat-Skagerrak are likely to be rather marginal because C. monotis is not known to be toxigenic. In any case, as a preliminary assessment, the results highlight the risk of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) events caused by P. lima, which may affect the development and sustainability of shellfish aquaculture in the region.