Abstract
Agrochemical exposure is a major contributor to ecological declines worldwide, including the loss of crucial pollinator species. In addition to direct toxicity, field-relevant doses of pesticides can increase species' vulnerabilities to other stressors, including parasites. Experimental field demonstrations of potential interactive effects of pesticides and additional stressors are rare, as are tests of mechanisms via which pollinators tolerate pesticides. Here, we controlled honey bee colony exposure to field-relevant concentrations of 2 neonicotinoid insecticides (clothianidin and thiamethoxam) in pollen and simultaneously manipulated intracolony genetic heterogeneity. We showed that exposure increased rates of Varroa destructor (Anderson and Trueman) parasitism and that while increased genetic heterogeneity overall improved survivability, it did not reduce the negative effect size of neonicotinoid exposure. This study is, to our knowledge, the first experimental field demonstration of how neonicotinoid exposure can increase V. destructor populations in honey bees and also demonstrates that colony genetic diversity cannot mitigate the effects of neonicotinoid pesticides.