Abstract
The immune responses during the initiation and invasion stages of human lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) development are largely unknown. Here, we generated a single-cell RNA sequencing map to decipher the immune dynamics during human LUAD development. We found that T follicular helper (Tfh)-like cells, germinal center B cells, and dysfunctional CD8+ T cells increase during tumor initiation/invasion and form a tertiary lymphoid structure (TLS) inside the tumor. This TLS starts with an aggregation of CD4+ T cells and the generation of CXCL13-expressing Tfh-like cells, followed by an accumulation of B cells, and then forms a CD4+ T and B cell aggregate. TLS and its associated cells are correlated with better patient survival. Inhibiting TLS formation by Tfh or B cell depletion promotes tumor growth in mouse models. The anti-tumoral effect of the Tfh-dependent TLS is mediated through interleukin-21 (IL-21)-IL-21 receptor signaling. Our study establishes an anti-tumoral role of the Tfh-dependent TLS in the development of LUAD.