Abstract
Bisphenol S (BPS) is an emerging environmental endocrine disruptor capable of crossing the placental barrier, resulting in widespread exposure to pregnant women due to its extensive usage. However, the impact of perinatal maternal exposure to BPS on reproductive health in offspring and the underlying molecular mechanism remain underexplored. In this study, gestational ICR mice were provided with drinking water containing 3.33 mg/L BPS to mimic possible human exposure in some countries. Results demonstrated that BPS accelerated the breakdown of germ-cell cysts and the assembly of primordial follicles in neonates, leading to oocyte over-loss. Furthermore, the expression levels of folliculogenesis-related genes (Kit, Nobox, Gdf9, Sohlh2, Kitl, Bmp15, Lhx8, Figla, and Tgfb1) decreased, thus compromising oocyte quality and disrupting early folliculogenesis dynamics. BPS also disrupted other aspects of offspring reproduction, including advancing puberty onset, disrupting the estrus cycle, and impairing fertility. Further investigation found that BPS exposure inhibited the activities and expression levels of antioxidant-related enzymes in neonatal ovaries, leading to the substantial accumulation of MDA and ROS. The increased oxidative burden exacerbated the intracellular apoptotic signaling, manifested by increased expression levels of pro-apoptotic markers (Bax, Caspase 3, and Caspase 9) and decreased expression levels of anti-apoptotic marker (Bcl2). Concurrently, BPS inhibited autophagy by increasing p-mTOR/mTOR and decreasing p-ULK1/ULK1, subsequently down-regulating autophagy flux-related biomarkers (LC3b/LC3a and Beclin-1) and impeding the degradation of autophagy substrate p62. However, the imbalanced crosstalk between autophagy, apoptosis and oxidative stress homeostasis was restored after rapamycin treatment. Collectively, the findings demonstrated that BPS exposure induced reproductive disorders in offspring by perturbing the mTOR/autophagy axis, and such autophagic dysfunction exacerbated redox imbalance and promoted excessive apoptosis. These results provide novel mechanistic insights into the role of autophagy in mitigating BPS-induced intergenerational reproductive dysfunction.