Abstract
Aphids are hemimetabolous insects that undergo incomplete metamorphosis without pupation. The annual life cycle of most aphids includes both an asexual (viviparous) and a sexual (oviparous) phase. Sexual reproduction only occurs once per year and is followed by many generations of asexual reproduction, during which aphids propagate exponentially with telescopic development. Here, we discuss the potential links between viviparous embryogenesis and derived developmental features in the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum, particularly focusing on germline specification and axis determination, both of which are key events of early development in insects. We also discuss potential evolutionary paths through which both viviparous and oviparous females might have come to utilize maternal germ plasm to drive germline specification. This developmental strategy, as defined by germline markers, has not been reported in other hemimetabolous insects. In viviparous females, furthermore, we discuss whether molecules that in other insects characterize germ plasm, like Vasa, also participate in posterior determination and how the anterior localization of the hunchback orthologue Ap-hb establishes the anterior-posterior axis. We propose that the linked chain of developing oocytes and embryos within each ovariole and the special morphology of early embryos might have driven the formation of evolutionary novelties in germline specification and axis determination in the viviparous aphids. Moreover, based upon the finding that the endosymbiont Buchnera aphidicola is closely associated with germ cells throughout embryogenesis, we propose presumptive roles for B. aphidicola in aphid development, discussing how it might regulate germline migration in both reproductive modes of pea aphids. In summary, we expect that this review will shed light on viviparous as well as oviparous development in aphids.