Abstract
Despite the precipitous decline of airborne lead concentrations following the removal of lead in gasoline, lead is still detectable in ambient air in most urban areas. Few studies, however, have examined the health effects of contemporary airborne lead concentrations in children. METHODS: We estimated monthly air lead exposure among 263 children (Cincinnati Childhood Allergy and Air Pollution Study; Cincinnati, OH; 2001-2005) using temporally scaled predictions from a validated land use model and assessed neurobehavioral outcomes at age 12 years using the parent-completed Behavioral Assessment System for Children, 2nd edition. We used distributed lag models to estimate the effect of airborne lead exposure on behavioral outcomes while adjusting for potential confounding by maternal education, community-level deprivation, blood lead concentrations, greenspace, and traffic related air pollution. RESULTS: We identified sensitive windows during mid- and late childhood for increased anxiety and atypicality scores, whereas sensitive windows for increased aggression and attention problems were identified immediately following birth. The strongest effect was at age 12, where a 1 ng/m(3) increase in airborne lead exposure was associated with a 3.1-point (95% confidence interval: 0.4, 5.7) increase in anxiety scores. No sensitive windows were identified for depression, somatization, conduct problems, hyperactivity, or withdrawal behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: We observed associations between exposure to airborne lead concentrations and poor behavioral outcomes at concentrations 10 times lower than the National Ambient Air Quality Standards set by the US Environmental Protection Agency.