Abstract
Little is known about the immune response to noroviruses. To elucidate the immunobiology of norovirus infection in humans, 15 volunteers were challenged with Snow Mountain virus (SMV), a genogroup 2 norovirus. We assessed the cellular and humoral immune response and infection by analyzing stool, serum, saliva, and peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) responses pre- and postchallenge. In contrast to Norwalk virus (NV), SMV infection was not dependent upon blood group secretor status. Nine of 15 volunteers were infected and showed a >/=4-fold increase over the prechallenge anti-SMV serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) titer, mostly subclass IgG1. Although serum IgG elicited by SMV infection was cross-reactive with Hawaii virus (HV), another genogroup 2 norovirus, salivary IgA was less cross-reactive. Neither SMV-elicited serum IgG nor salivary IgA cross-reacted with NV, a genogroup 1 norovirus. Significant increases in serum gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) and IL-2, but not IL-6 or IL-10, were noted on day 2 postchallenge. For the majority of volunteers, both infected and uninfected, PBMCs stimulated with norovirus virus-like particles secreted IFN-gamma and other Th1 cytokines, suggesting previous norovirus exposure in most volunteers. Like the IgG antibodies, the SMV-activated T cells were cross-reactive with HV but not NV. IFN-gamma production was dependent upon CD4(+) cells, consistent with a predominant, but not exclusive, Th1 response. To our knowledge, this is the first report characterizing T-cell and cytokine responses following live norovirus challenge.