Abstract
Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is the third most common genitourinary cancer in the USA. Despite recent advances in the treatment for advanced and metastatic clear cell RCC (ccRCC), the 5-year relative survival rate for the distant disease remains at 12%. Cabozantinib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI), which is one of the first-line therapies approved to treat advanced ccRCC as a single agent, is now being investigated as a combination therapy with newer immunotherapeutic agents. However, not much is known about how cabozantinib modulates the immune system. Here, we present a high throughput tri-culture model that incorporates cancer cells, endothelial cells, and patient-derived immune cells to study the effect of immune cells from patients with ccRCC on angiogenesis and cabozantinib resistance. We show that circulating immune cells from patients with ccRCC induce cabozantinib resistance via increased secretion of a set of pro-angiogenic factors. Using multivariate partial least square regression modeling, we identified CD4+ T cell subsets that are correlated with cabozantinib resistance and report the changes in the frequency of these populations in ccRCC patients who are undergoing cabozantinib therapy. These findings provide a potential set of biomarkers that should be further investigated in the current TKI-immunotherapy combination clinical trials to improve personalized treatments for patients with ccRCC.