Artesunate disrupts germ layer formation by inhibiting BMP signaling pathway.

Xenopus embryo is a useful model for evaluating the adverse effects of any compounds on the cellular processes essential for early development and adult tissue homeostasis. Our chemical library screening with frog embryos identified artesunate (ART) as an inhibitor of the BMP signaling pathway to interfere with the specification of embryonic germ layers. Exposure to ART led to reduction of the anterior-posterior body axis, malformed tail structures and loss of pigment cells in the trunk region of embryos. The severely defective embryos exhibited truncation of posterior structures, resembling the phenotypes of tadpoles depleted of BMPs. Consistent with these morphological deformities, ART exposure inhibited the BMP-dependent transcriptions of target genes and specification of ventral mesoderm. In contrast, the expression of an organizer-specific gene induced by Activin/Nodal signaling remained unchanged in ART-treated cells. ART also enhanced anterior neural differentiation at the expense of epidermal and neural crest cell fates. Unexpectedly, we observed that ART exposure accelerates proteasomal degradation of a BMP transducer Smad1, leading to upregulation of MAP kinase activity. Taken together, these results suggest that ART acts as an inhibitor of BMP signaling pathway, exerting severe adverse effects on the specification of germ layers in vertebrate early development.