Stage-Specific Effects of TiO(2), ZnO, and CuO Nanoparticles on Green Microalga Haematococcus lacustris: Biomass and Astaxanthin Biosynthesis.

Evaluating the effects of nanoparticles on biomass growth and astaxanthin accumulation in Haematococcus lacustris is crucial for optimizing the production of astaxanthin, a valuable carotenoid with numerous industrial applications. Identifying the life stages at which these nanoparticles exert stimulatory or toxic effects will aid in formulating effective production strategies. This study investigated the effects of titanium dioxide (TiO(2)), zinc oxide (ZnO), and copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles on biomass growth, astaxanthin biosynthesis, and lipid accumulation in Haematococcus lacustris, with a focus on their stage-specific impact throughout the algal life cycle. The nanoparticles were added at the start of cultivation, and the microalgal cultures developed continuously in their presence. Sampling for biochemical analyses was performed at distinct life stages (green motile, palmella, and aplanospore), enabling the assessment of stage-dependent responses. TiO(2)NPs significantly stimulated biomass accumulation during the green motile stage. In the palmella stage, astaxanthin levels decreased in the presence of all nanoparticles, likely due to the absence of a stress signal required to activate pigment biosynthesis, despite ongoing biomass growth. In contrast, the aplanospore stage exhibited reactivation of astaxanthin biosynthesis and increased lipid accumulation, particularly under TiO(2)NPs. Astaxanthin content increased by 21.57%. This study highlights that TiO(2), ZnO, and CuO nanoparticles modulate growth and astaxanthin biosynthesis in Haematococcus lacustris in a life cycle-dependent manner.