Abstract
Predicted climate change-induced increases in heat waves and hypoxic events will have profound effects on fishes, yet the capacity of parents to alter offspring phenotype via non-genetic inheritance and buffer against these combined stressors is not clear. This study tested how prolonged adult zebrafish exposure to combined diel cycles of thermal stress and hypoxia affect offspring early survival and development, parental investment of cortisol and heat shock proteins (HSPs), larval offspring stress responses, and both parental and offspring heat and hypoxia tolerance. Parental exposure to the combined stressor did not affect fecundity, but increased mortality, produced smaller embryos and delayed hatching. The combined treatment also reduced maternal deposition of cortisol and increased embryo hsf1, hsp70a, HSP70, hsp90aa and HSP90 levels. In larvae, basal cortisol levels did not differ between treatments, but acute exposure to combined heat stress and hypoxia increased cortisol levels in control larvae with no effect on larvae from exposed parents. In contrast, whereas larval basal hsf1, hsp70a and hsp90aa levels differed between parental treatments, the combined acute stressor elicited similar transcriptional responses across treatments. Moreover, the combined acute stressor only induced a marked increase in HSP47 levels in the larvae derived from exposed parents. Finally, combined hypoxia and elevated temperatures increased both thermal and hypoxia tolerance in adults and conferred an increase in offspring thermal but not hypoxia tolerance. These results demonstrate that intergenerational acclimation to combined thermal stress and hypoxia elicit complex carryover effects on stress responsiveness and offspring tolerance with potential consequences for resilience.