Human de novo mutation rates from a four-generation pedigree reference.

Understanding the human de novo mutation (DNM) rate requires complete sequence information(1). Here using five complementary short-read and long-read sequencing technologies, we phased and assembled more than 95% of each diploid human genome in a four-generation, twenty-eight-member family (CEPH 1463). We estimate 98-206 DNMs per transmission, including 74.5 de novo single-nucleotide variants, 7.4 non-tandem repeat indels, 65.3 de novo indels or structural variants originating from tandem repeats, and 4.4 centromeric DNMs. Among male individuals, we find 12.4 de novo Y chromosome events per generation. Short tandem repeats and variable-number tandem repeats are the most mutable, with 32 loci exhibiting recurrent mutation through the generations. We accurately assemble 288 centromeres and six Y chromosomes across the generations and demonstrate that the DNM rate varies by an order of magnitude depending on repeat content, length and sequence identity. We show a strong paternal bias (75-81%) for all forms of germline DNM, yet we estimate that 16% of de novo single-nucleotide variants are postzygotic in origin with no paternal bias, including early germline mosaic mutations. We place all this variation in the context of a high-resolution recombination map (~3.4 kb breakpoint resolution) and find no correlation between meiotic crossover and de novo structural variants. These near-telomere-to-telomere familial genomes provide a truth set to understand the most fundamental processes underlying human genetic variation.