Abstract
How the brain signals prediction errors for non-rewarding, yet significant, sensory events remains a central question. Although the cortical mismatch negativity provides a well-known signature for deviance detection, the contribution of subcortical dopamine remains unclear. This study tested the hypothesis that phasic dopamine in the nucleus accumbens encodes the salience associated with the violation of an ongoing statistical regularity. Using fiber photometry in freely moving rats, we contrasted an auditory oddball paradigm with a many-standards control. Deviant stimuli elicited a significantly amplified dopamine response compared with standard stimuli. Crucially, this dopamine response enhancement was absent in the control condition, demonstrating that the nucleus accumbens dopamine responds specifically to rule violation rather than mere stimulus rarity. The long latency of this signal (~500 ms) relative to the cortical mismatch negativity argues against a direct role in the initial detection of deviance. Instead, our findings support a model in which subcortical dopamine acts as a distinct salience signal, operating in parallel with cortical deviance detection, to evaluate unexpected events and guide subsequent behavioral adjustments.