Abstract
BACKGROUND: India reports the highest number of tuberculosis (TB) and second-highest number of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) globally. We hypothesize that HIV might increase the existing financial burden of care among patients with TB. We conducted this study to estimate the costs incurred by patients with TB co-infected with HIV and to explore the perspectives of patients as well as program functionaries for reducing the costs. METHODS: We conducted a descriptive cross-sectional study among 234 co-infected TB-HIV patients notified in the Bhavnagar region of western India from 2017 to 2020 to estimate the costs incurred, followed by in-depth interviews among program functionaries and patients to explore the solutions for reducing the costs. Costs were estimated in Indian rupees (INR) and expressed as median (interquartile range IQR). The World Health Organization defines catastrophic costs as when the total costs incurred by patients exceed 20% of annual household income. The in-depth interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed as codes grouped into categories. RESULTS: Among the 234 TB-HIV co-infected patients, 78% were male, 18% were sole earners in the family, and their median (IQR) monthly family income was INR 9000 (7500-11,000) [~US$ 132 (110-162)]. The total median (IQR) costs incurred for TB were INR 4613 (2541-7429) [~US$ 69 (37-109)], which increased to INR 7355 (4337-11,657) [~US$ 108 (64-171)] on adding the costs due to HIV. The catastrophic costs at a 20% cut-off of annual household income for TB were 4% (95% CI 2-8%), which increased to 12% (95% CI 8-16%) on adding the costs due to HIV. Strengthening health systems, cash benefits, reducing costs through timely referral, awareness generation, and improvements in caregiving were some of the solutions provided by program functionaries and the patients. CONCLUSION: We conclude that catastrophic costs due to TB-HIV co-infection were higher than that due to TB alone in our study setting. Bringing care closer to the patients would reduce their costs. Strengthening town-level healthcare facilities for diagnostics as well as treatment might shift the healthcare-seeking of patients from the private sector towards the government and thereby reduce the costs incurred.