Abstract
INTRODUCTION: Menstrual health is a key patient-reported outcome beyond its importance as a general indicator of health and fertility. However, menstrual function was not measured in the clinical trials of COVID-19 vaccines. The purpose of this review was to synthesise the existing literature on the relationship between COVID-19 vaccination and menstrual health outcomes. METHODS: A PubMed search to 31 October 2023 identified a total of 53 publications: 11 prospective cohort studies, 11 retrospective cohort studies or registry-based cohort studies, and 31 cross-sectional or retrospective case-control studies. RESULTS: Identified studies were generally at moderate-to-high risk of bias due to retrospective design, interviewer bias, and failure to include a non-vaccinated control group. Nonetheless, the bulk of the literature demonstrates that COVID-19 vaccine is associated with temporary changes in menstrual characteristics (cycle length and flow) and menstrual pain. Follicular phase (at the time of vaccination) is associated with greater increases in cycle length. Evidence suggests temporary post-vaccine menstrual changes in adolescents, abnormal vaginal bleeding in postmenopausal individuals, and a potential protective effect of using hormonal contraception. CONCLUSIONS: In this review we found evidence supporting an association between the COVID-19 vaccine and menstrual health outcomes. Given the importance of menstrual function to overall health, we recommend that all future vaccine trials include menstruation as a study outcome. Future vaccine studies should include rigorous assessment of the menstrual cycle as an outcome variable to limit sources of bias, identify biological mechanisms, and elucidate the impact of stress.