Abstract
Cancer is one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Nanomedicines have significantly improved life expectancy and survival rates for cancer patients in current standard care. However, recurrence of cancer due to metastasis remains a significant challenge. Vaccines can provide long-term protection and are ideal for preventing bacterial and viral infections. Cancer vaccines, however, have shown limited therapeutic efficacy and raised safety concerns despite extensive research. Cancer vaccines target and stimulate responses against tumor-specific antigens and have demonstrated great potential for cancer treatment in preclinical studies. However, tumor-associated immunosuppression and immune tolerance driven by immunoediting pose significant challenges for vaccine design. In situ vaccination represents an alternative approach to traditional cancer vaccines. This strategy involves the intratumoral administration of immunostimulants to modulate the growth and differentiation of innate immune cells, such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and neutrophils, and restore T-cell activity. Currently approved in situ vaccines, such as T-VEC, have demonstrated clinical promise, while ongoing clinical trials continue to explore novel strategies for broader efficacy. Despite these advancements, failures in vaccine research highlight the need to address tumor-associated immune suppression and immune escape mechanisms. In situ vaccination strategies combine innate and adaptive immune stimulation, leveraging tumor-associated antigens to activate dendritic cells and cross-prime CD8+ T cells. Various vaccine modalities, such as nucleotide-based vaccines (e.g., RNA and DNA vaccines), peptide-based vaccines, and cell-based vaccines (including dendritic, T-cell, and B-cell approaches), show significant potential. Plant-based viral approaches, including cowpea mosaic virus and Newcastle disease virus, further expand the toolkit for in situ vaccination. Therapeutic modalities such as chemotherapy, radiation, photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, and Checkpoint blockade inhibitors contribute to enhanced antigen presentation and immune activation. Adjuvants like CpG-ODN and PRR agonists further enhance immune modulation and vaccine efficacy. The advantages of in situ vaccination include patient specificity, personalization, minimized antigen immune escape, and reduced logistical costs. However, significant barriers such as tumor heterogeneity, immune evasion, and logistical challenges remain. This review explores strategies for developing potent cancer vaccines, examines ongoing clinical trials, evaluates immune stimulation methods, and discusses prospects for advancing in situ cancer vaccination.