Abstract
BACKGROUND: Evidence suggests that suffering may degrade health and well-being. However, further research is needed to identify potential targets for addressing population-level suffering. METHODS: This cross-sectional study used nationally representative data from 22 countries in Wave 1 of the Global Flourishing Study (N = 202,898) to explore associations of 13 individual characteristics and retrospectively recalled childhood factors with suffering in adulthood. We conducted a modified Poisson regression by country in which suffering was regressed on all candidate predictors. Random effects meta-analyses were used to aggregate results for the 11 predictors that were common across all countries. RESULTS: Our meta-analytic results suggest that a combination of risk and protective factors during childhood may be associated with suffering in adulthood. Individuals whose parents were married (versus divorced) at age 12, had a very good/somewhat good paternal relationship (versus very bad/somewhat bad) when growing up, had excellent health (versus good) when growing up, and who reported their family lived comfortably (versus got by) financially when growing up are less likely to experience suffering in adulthood, whereas those who were abused during childhood (versus not), felt like an outsider in their family when growing up (versus not), attended religious services 1-3 times a month (versus never) around age 12, and are female (versus male) have a higher likelihood of suffering in adulthood. Associations are somewhat heterogeneous across the countries. CONCLUSIONS: Childhood experiences, influences, and conditions may impact experiences of suffering in adulthood. Targeted early-life interventions could mitigate the burden of suffering later in life.