Abstract
Tibetan mural samples from the Jiazhaer mountain cave were studied using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and immunofluorescence microscopy (IFM). Samples containing protein binders were first identified using ELISA, and then IFM was used to determine the location of protein binders. Using these methods, we discovered gelatin and casein in samples from wall murals, distributed in both red and black pigments. We excluded the possibility of contamination by conducting further experiments where simulated samples were spiked with milk. We conclude that both gelatin and casein were used as binders in the pigments of the Tibetan Buddhist murals in the Jiazhaer (Transliteration from Tibetan) mountain cave. This is the first evidence of casein being used as a binder in Chinese mural pigments.