Abstract
Background: Bladder cancer is the ninth most prevalent cancer globally. Most cases are urothelial carcinoma, classified as non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) or muscle invasive bladder cancer (MIBC); approximately 70% are diagnosed as NMIBC. Current standard of care for high-risk NMIBC includes transurethral tumour resection, followed by intravesical therapy with Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG). However, significant unmet needs persist due to disease recurrence, BCG unresponsiveness, or progression to MIBC. Radical cystectomy is recommended after BCG unresponsiveness but may not be viable due to its invasiveness and morbidity. The paucity of treatment options for BCG-unresponsive NMIBC has driven research into alternatives such as gene therapy. The bladder's anatomy allows direct vector-tumour contact, while urine and tissue samples allow for easy monitoring of therapeutic effects. Methods: This narrative review integrates findings from recent clinical and preclinical studies identified through comprehensive searches of peer-reviewed literature to provide an overview of the current landscape of gene therapy for BCG-unresponsive NMIBC. Results: Nadofaragene firadenovec, a recombinant adenovirus delivering interferon alpha-2b (IFNα2b), is the first FDA-approved gene therapy for BCG-unresponsive NMIBC with carcinoma in situ (CIS). A phase III nadofaragene firadenovec study (NCT02773849) demonstrated a 53% complete response (CR) rate at 3 months; and 43% of patients with CIS had bladder preservation at 60 months. Cretostimogene grenadenorepvec (CG0070), an oncolytic vector, demonstrated a 47% 6-month CR rate in a phase II study (NCT02365818). Detalimogene voraplasmid (EG-70), a nonviral gene therapy, demonstrated a 47% 6-month CR in a phase I/II study (NCT04752722). Future advances are likely to focus on patient selection, novel vectors, and combination strategies to improve treatment outcomes. Conclusions: Gene therapy represents a significant addition to the bladder cancer treatment landscape by offering bladder-sparing alternatives where conventional therapies are limited.