Abstract
Although clinical cardiovascular outcomes, such as heart attack, stroke, and sudden cardiac death, have a dramatic onset, they result from prolonged exposure to an ever-growing array of risk factors. Several noninvasive procedures are available to assess the cumulative effect of these exposures with the goal of more precisely estimating a person's cardiovascular risk. These include ankle-brachial index, which provides an estimation of obstruction in major-vessel lumen caliber; carotid ultrasound, which evaluates carotid intima-media thickness and plaque, visibly quantifying atherosclerotic burden; aortic pulse wave velocity, which provides a measure of large-artery stiffness; and echocardiography, which measures left ventricular mass, providing a measure of subclinical hypertensive heart disease. In this narrative review, we discuss the role of each of these measures, with a particular emphasis on patients with chronic kidney disease.