Abstract
Coliphages are alternative fecal indicators that may be suitable surrogates for viral pathogens, but majority of standard detection methods utilize insufficient volumes for routine detection in environmental waters. We compared three somatic and F+ coliphage methods based on a paired measurement from 1 L samples collected from the Great Lakes (n = 74). Methods include: 1) dead-end hollow fiber ultrafilter with single agar layer (D-HFUF-SAL); 2) modified SAL (M-SAL); and 3) direct membrane filtration (DMF) technique. Overall, D-HFUF-SAL outperformed other methods as it yielded the lowest frequency of non-detects [(ND); 10.8%] and the highest average concentrations of recovered coliphage for positive samples (2.51 ± 1.02 [standard deviation, SD] log(10) plaque forming unit/liter (PFU/L) and 0.79 ± 0.71 (SD) log(10) PFU/L for somatic and F+, respectively). M-SAL yielded 29.7% ND and average concentrations of 2.26 ± 1.15 (SD) log(10) PFU/L (somatic) and 0.59 ± 0.82 (SD) log(10) PFU/L (F+). DMF performance was inferior to D-HFUF-SAL and M-SAL methods (ND of 65.6%; average somatic coliphage concentration 1.52 ± 1.32 [SD] log(10) PFU/L, no F+ detected), indicating this procedure is unsuitable for 1 L surface water sample volumes. This study represents an important step toward the use of a coliphage method for recreational water quality criteria purposes.