Abstract
Cognitive flexibility allows individuals to switch between different tasks, strategies, or ideas; an ability that is important for everyday life. The Wisconsin card sorting test (WCST) and task switching paradigm (TSP) are popular measures of cognitive flexibility. Although both tasks require switching, the TSP requires participants to memorize switching rules and retrieve them when they view a cue (rule-retrieval), whereas the classic WCST requires participants to discover the switching rule via trial-and-error (rule-discovery). Many functional magnetic resonance imaging studies have examined brain responses to these tasks. Extant meta-analyses show concordance in activation in a widespread set of areas including frontal, parietal, and cingulate cortices. Critically, past meta-analyses have not specifically examined brain correlates associated with rule derivation (i.e., rule-discovery vs. rule-retrieval) in cognitive flexibility tasks. We examine for the first time common and distinct concordance in brain responses to rule-discovery (i.e., WCST) and rule-retrieval (i.e., TSP), as well as TSP subtypes using quantitative meta-analyses. We analyzed data from 69 eligible articles with a total of 1617 young-adult participants. Conjunction results show concordance in common fronto-parietal areas predominantly in the left hemisphere. Contrast analyses show that rule-discovery required increased involvement in multiple cortical and subcortical regions such as frontopolar (Brodmann Area 10), parietal, insular cortex, thalamus and caudate nucleus predominantly in the right hemisphere. No significant differences in concordance were observed among the three, task switching paradigm sub-types. We propose a neuroanatomical model of cognitive flexibility and discuss theoretical and practical applications.