Abstract
Gadolinium (Gd)-containing chelates have been established as diagnostics tools. However, extensive use in magnetic resonance imaging has led to increased Gd levels in industrialized parts of the world, adding to natural occurrence and causing environmental and health concerns. A vast amount of data shows that metal may accumulate in the human body and its deposition has been detected in organs such as brain and liver. Moreover, the disease nephrogenic systemic fibrosis has been linked to increased Gd(3+) levels. Investigation of Gd(3+) effects at the cellular and molecular levels mostly revolves around calcium-dependent proteins, since Gd(3+) competes with calcium due to their similar size; other reports focus on interaction of Gd(3+) with nucleic acids and carbohydrates. However, little is known about Gd(3+) effects on membranes; yet some results suggest that Gd(3+) interacts strongly with biologically-relevant lipids (e.g., brain membrane constituents) and causes serious structural changes including enhanced membrane rigidity and propensity for lipid fusion and aggregation at much lower concentrations than other ions, both toxic and essential. This review surveys the impact of the anthropogenic use of Gd emphasizing health risks and discussing debilitating effects of Gd(3+) on cell membrane organization that may lead to deleterious health consequences.