Abstract
BACKGROUND: The rates of tobacco use, including cigarette and waterpipe smoking, are surging in the Eastern Mediterranean region. The use of these products causes nicotine dependence that makes even short-term tobacco abstinence difficult due to aversive symptoms. During the daytime fasting of the month of "Ramadan", people accept significant disruption in regular activities, including tobacco smoking. Thus, daytime during Ramadan (before sunset) is likely associated with abstinence symptoms emerging among tobacco smokers. We assessed this hypothesis by measuring tobacco/nicotine abstinence symptoms and craving among smokers of cigarettes or waterpipes during Ramadan. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey-based study was conducted on a convenience sample of adults. Participants were assessed for general information about tobacco smoking, dependence, and nicotine desire or craving, and withdrawal symptoms using the Minnesota Nicotine Withdrawal Scale (MNWS) and the Tiffany-Drobes Questionnaire on Smoking Urges. RESULTS: The study sample included 632 exclusive cigarette smokers and 161 exclusive waterpipe tobacco smokers. After fasting and abstaining from tobacco during the day, approximately 75% of cigarette smokers and 20% of waterpipe smokers reported smoking within the first 30 minutes. In addition, 10% of cigarette smokers and 30% of waterpipe smokers reported smoking within the first 60 minutes. Regarding smoking urge, no significant difference was found between cigarette and waterpipe smokers. For nicotine craving and withdrawal, significant differences between cigarette and waterpipe smokers were found when comparing mean scores for each of the following items: (i) urge to smoke, (ii) craving nicotine, (iii) hunger, (iv) desire for sweets, and (v) depression/feeling blue (P-values < 0.05). CONCLUSION: This study provided evidence from the month of Ramadan that waterpipe smoking is associated with abstinence-induced smoking urge and withdrawal symptoms that are comparable to cigarette smoking. More interdisciplinary research must be focused on developing interventions to reduce tobacco smoking, including waterpipe.