Abstract
OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to investigate the association between household pesticide exposure and depression risk in adults, with a particular focus on sex- and age-specific vulnerabilities. The analysis utilized integrated biomarker assessment and advanced mixture modeling techniques. METHODS: Cross-sectional data from 6502 adults (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey [NHANES] 2007-2014) were analyzed. Household pesticide exposure was evaluated through self-reports as well as urinary metabolites (DEET, DCBA, DHMB, 3-phenoxybenzoic acid [3-PBA], 4F-3-PBA, and cis-DCBA). To assess exposure-response relationships, nonlinear trends, and mixture effects while adjusting for sociodemographic factors, lifestyle choices, and clinical covariates, we employed survey-weighted logistic regression models along with restricted cubic spline (RCS), Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR), and weighted quantile sum (WQS) analyses. RESULTS: Self-reported pesticide exposure demonstrated a marginal association with depression (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 1.43; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.91-2.25). Urinary pyrethroid metabolite 3-PBA exhibited dose-dependent relationships with depression (OR = 1.02 per 1 μg/L; 95% CI: 1.00-1.04). Notable sex-specific vulnerabilities were identified; females exhibited stronger associations with both 3-PBA (OR = 1.04) and 4F-3-PBA (OR = 1.69), whereas males showed heightened sensitivity to DCBA (weight = 0.35). Mixture analyses indicated joint effects involving DHMB and 3-PBA as notable contributors to the observed outcomes. Additionally, fatigue (OR = 1.26), self-blame (OR = 1.30), and appetite disturbances (OR = 1.17) statistically contributed to pesticide exposure. Nonlinear dose-response patterns were particularly evident among males and younger adults. CONCLUSIONS: This cross-sectional analysis demonstrates an association between exposure to household pesticides, particularly pyrethroids, and an increased risk of depression, with variation across demographic groups. These findings underscore the need for further longitudinal investigation to establish causality and understand the implications of pesticide usage on public health.