Abstract
Cell membrane integrity is fundamental to the normal activities of cells and is involved in both acute and chronic pathologies. Here, we report a probe for analyzing cell membrane integrity developed from a 9 nm-sized protein nanocage named Dps via fluorophore conjugation with high spatial precision to avoid self-quenching. The probe cannot enter normal live cells but can accumulate in dead or live cells with damaged membranes, which, interestingly, leads to weak cytoplasmic and strong nuclear staining. This differential staining is found attributed to the high affinity of Dps for histones rather than DNA, providing a staining mechanism different from those of known membrane exclusion probes (MEPs). Moreover, the Dps nanoprobe is larger in size and thus applies a more stringent criterion for identifying severe membrane damage than currently available MEPs. This study shows the potential of Dps as a new bioimaging platform for biological and medical analyses. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: Supplementary material (Figs. S1-S12 including distance information between neighboring fluorophores on Dps, TEM images, MALDI-TOF analysis, fluorescence spectra, confocal images, gel retardation analysis, tissue staining, and additional data) is available in the online version of this article at 10.1007/s12274-022-4785-5.