Abstract
OBJECTIVE: To define embarrassment and develop an understanding of the role of embarrassment in relation to cervical cancer screening and self-collected human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA testing in Uganda. DESIGN: Cross-sectional, qualitative study using semistructured one-to-one interviews and focus groups. PARTICIPANTS: 6 key-informant health workers and 16 local women, purposively sampled. Key informant inclusion criteria: Ugandan members of the project team. Focus group inclusion criteria: woman age 30-69 years, Luganda or Swahili speaking, living or working in the target Ugandan community. EXCLUSION CRITERIA: unwillingness to sign informed consent. SETTING: Primary and tertiary low-resource setting in Kampala, Uganda. RESULTS: In Luganda, embarrassment relating to cervical cancer is described in two forms. 'Community embarrassment' describes discomfort based on how a person may be perceived by others. 'Personal embarrassment' relates to shyness or discomfort with her own genitalia. Community embarrassment was described in themes relating to place of study recruitment, amount of privacy in dwellings, personal relationship with health workers, handling of the vaginal swab and misunderstanding of HPV self-collection as HIV testing. Themes of personal embarrassment related to lack of knowledge, age and novelty of the self-collection swab. Overall, embarrassment was a barrier to screening at the outset and diminished over time through education and knowledge. Fatalism regarding cervical cancer diagnosis, worry about results and stigma associated with a cervical cancer diagnosis were other psychosocial barriers described. Overcoming psychosocial barriers to screening can include peer-to-peer education, drama and media campaigns. CONCLUSIONS: Embarrassment and other psychosocial barriers may play a large role at the onset of a screening programme, but over time as education and knowledge increase, and the social norms around screening evolve, its role diminishes. The role of peer-to-peer education and community authorities on healthcare cannot be overlooked and can have a major impact in overcoming psychosocial and social barriers to screening.