Abstract
In cell extrusion, a cell embedded in an epithelial monolayer loses its apical or basal surface and is subsequently squeezed out of the monolayer by neighboring cells. Cell extrusions occur during apoptosis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, or precancerous cell invasion. They play important roles in embryogenesis, homeostasis, carcinogenesis, and many other biological processes. Although many of the molecular factors involved in cell extrusion are known, little is known about the mechanical basis of cell extrusion. We used a three-dimensional (3D) vertex model to investigate the mechanical stability of cells arranged in a monolayer with 3D foam geometry. We found that when the cells composing the monolayer have homogeneous mechanical properties, cells are extruded from the monolayer when the symmetry of the 3D geometry is broken because of an increase in cell density or a decrease in the number of topological neighbors around single cells. Those results suggest that mechanical instability inherent in the 3D foam geometry of epithelial monolayers is sufficient to drive epithelial cell extrusion. In the situation in which cells in the monolayer actively generate contractile or adhesive forces under the control of intrinsic genetic programs, the forces act to break the symmetry of the monolayer, leading to cell extrusion that is directed to the apical or basal side of the monolayer by the balance of contractile and adhesive forces on the apical and basal sides. Although our analyses are based on a simple mechanical model, our results are in accordance with observations of epithelial monolayers in vivo and consistently explain cell extrusions under a wide range of physiological and pathophysiological conditions. Our results illustrate the importance of a mechanical understanding of cell extrusion and provide a basis by which to link molecular regulation to physical processes.