Abstract
OBJECTIVES: The increase in the complexity of operations, the rising quest for improved outcomes and the scrutiny of surgical practice and its associated complications have led to a decreased educational value of in-patient surgical training within cardiac surgery. Simulation-based training has emerged as an adjunct to the apprenticeship model. In the following review, we aimed to evaluate the currently available evidence regarding simulation-based training in cardiac surgery. METHODS: A systematic database search was conducted as per PRISMA guidelines, of original articles that explored the use of simulation-based training in adult cardiac surgery programs in EMBASE, MEDLINE, Cochrane database and Google Scholar, from inception to 2022. Data extraction covered the study characteristics, simulation modality, main methodology and main outcomes. RESULTS: Our search yielded 341 articles, of which 28 studies were included in this review. Three main areas of focus were identified: (i) validity testing of the models; (ii) impact on surgeons' skills; and (iii) impact on clinical practice. Fouteen studies reported animal-based models and 14 reported on non-tissue-based models covering a wide spectrum of surgical operations. The results of the included studies suggest that validity assessment is scarce within the field, being carried out for only 4 of the models. Nonetheless, all studies reported improvement in trainees' confidence, clinical knowledge and surgical skills (including accuracy, speed, dexterity) of trainees both at senior and junior levels. The direct clinical impact included initiation of minimally invasive programmes and improved board exam pass rates, and creating positive behavioural changes to minimize further cardiovascular risk. CONCLUSIONS: Surgical simulation has been shown to provide substantial benefits to trainees. Further evidence is needed to explore its direct impact on clinical practice.