Abstract
OBJECTIVES: To explore the optimal laser settings and treatment strategies for thulium fibre laser (TFL) lithotripsy, namely, those with the highest treatment efficiency, lowest thermal injury risk, and shortest procedure time. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An in vitro kidney model was used to assess the efficacy of TFL lithotripsy in the upper calyx. Stone ablation experiments were performed on BegoStone phantoms at different combinations of pulse energy (E(P) ) and frequency (F) to determine the optimal settings. Temperature changes and thermal injury risks were monitored using embedded thermocouples. Experiments were also performed on calcium oxalate monohydrate (COM) stones to validate the optimal settings. RESULTS: High E(P) /low F settings demonstrated superior treatment efficiency compared to low E(P) /high F settings using the same power. Specifically, 0.8 J/12 Hz was the optimal setting, resulting in a twofold increase in treatment efficiency, a 39% reduction in energy expenditure per unit of ablated stone mass, a 35% reduction in residual fragments, and a 36% reduction in total procedure time compared to the 0.2 J/50 Hz setting for COM stones. Thermal injury risk assessment indicated that 10 W power settings with high E(P) /low F combinations remained below the threshold for tissue injury, while higher power settings (>10 W) consistently exceeded the safety threshold. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that high E(P) /low F settings, such as 0.8 J/12 Hz, are optimal for TFL lithotripsy in the treatment of COM stones. These settings demonstrated significantly improved treatment efficiency with reduced residual fragments compared to conventional settings while keeping the thermal dose below the injury threshold. This study highlights the importance of using the high E(P) /low F combination with low power settings, which maximizes treatment efficiency and minimizes potential thermal injury. Further studies are warranted to determine the optimal settings for TFL for treating kidney stones with different compositions.