Abstract
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterised by impaired glucose regulation, leading to severe complications affecting multiple organ systems. Current diagnostic approaches primarily rely on glucose monitoring, which, while being effective, fails to capture the underlying molecular changes associated with disease progression. Emerging biomarkers such as microRNAs (miRNAs) and adipokines offer new insights into diabetes pathophysiology, providing potential diagnostic and prognostic value beyond traditional methods. Given this, precise monitoring of the altered levels of miRNAs and adipokines can forge a path towards early diabetes diagnosis and improved disease management. Biosensors have revolutionised diabetes diagnostics, with glucose biosensors dominating the market for decades. However, recent advancements in nanobiosensors have expanded their scope beyond glucose detection, enabling highly sensitive and selective monitoring of biomolecular markers like miRNAs and adipokines. These nanotechnology-driven platforms offer rapid, inexpensive, and minimally invasive detection strategies, paving the way for improved disease management. This review provides an overview of diabetes, along with its pathogenesis, complications, and demographics, and explores the clinical relevance of miRNAs and adipokines as emerging biomarkers. It further examines the evolution of biosensor technologies, highlights recent developments in nanobiosensors for biomarker detection, and critically analyses the challenges and future directions in this growing field.