Abstract
BACKGROUND: Mangroves have adapted to intertidal zones - the interface between terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Various studies have shown adaptive evolution in mangroves at physiological, ecological, and genomic levels. However, these studies paid little attention to gene regulation of salt adaptation by transcriptome profiles. RESULTS: We sequenced the transcriptomes of Sonneratia alba under low (fresh water), medium (half the seawater salinity), and high salt (seawater salinity) conditions and investigated the underlying transcriptional regulation of salt adaptation. In leaf tissue, 64% potential salinity-related genes were not differentially expressed when salinity increased from freshwater to medium levels, but became up- or down-regulated when salt concentrations further increased to levels found in sea water, indicating that these genes are well adapted to the medium saline condition. We inferred that both maintenance and regulation of cellular environmental homeostasis are important adaptive processes in S. alba. i) The sulfur metabolism as well as flavone and flavonol biosynthesis KEGG pathways were significantly enriched among up-regulated genes in leaves. They are both involved in scavenging ROS or synthesis and accumulation of osmosis-related metabolites in plants. ii) There was a significantly increased percentage of transcription factor-encoding genes among up-regulated transcripts. High expressions of salt tolerance-related TF families were found under high salt conditions. iii) Some genes up-regulated in response to salt treatment showed signs of adaptive evolution at the amino acid level and might contribute to adaptation to fluctuating intertidal environments. CONCLUSIONS: This study first elucidates the mechanism of high-salt adaptation in mangroves at the whole-transcriptome level by salt gradient experimental treatments. It reveals that several candidate genes (including salt-related genes, TF-encoding genes, and PSGs) and major pathways are involved in adaptation to high-salt environments. Our study also provides a valuable resource for future investigation of adaptive evolution in extreme environments.