Abstract
The widely used carbamate pesticide carbofuran causes neurophysiological and neurobehavioral deficits in rodents and humans and therefore poses serious health hazards around the world. Previously, we reported that gestational carbofuran exposure has detrimental effects on hippocampal neurogenesis, the generation of new neurons from neural stem cells (NSC), in offspring. However, the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms for carbofuran-impaired neurogenesis remain unknown. Herein, we observed that chronic carbofuran exposure from gestational day 7 to postnatal day 21 altered expression of genes and transcription factors and levels of proteins involved in neurogenesis and the TGF-β pathway (i.e. TGF-β; SMAD-2, -3, and -7; and SMURF-2) in the rat hippocampus. We found that carbofuran increases TGF-β signaling (i.e. increased phosphorylated SMAD-2/3 and reduced SMAD-7 expression) in the hippocampus, which reduced NSC proliferation because of increased p21 levels and reduced cyclin D1 levels. Moreover, the carbofuran-altered TGF-β signaling impaired neuronal differentiation (BrdU/DCX+ and BrdU/NeuN+ cells) and increased apoptosis and neurodegeneration in the hippocampus. Blockade of the TGF-β pathway with the specific inhibitor SB431542 and via SMAD-3 siRNA prevented carbofuran-mediated inhibition of neurogenesis in both hippocampal NSC cultures and the hippocampus, suggesting the specific involvement of this pathway. Of note, both in vitro and in vivo studies indicated that TGF-β pathway attenuation reverses carbofuran's inhibitory effects on neurogenesis and associated learning and memory deficits. These results suggest that carbofuran inhibits NSC proliferation and neuronal differentiation by altering TGF-β signaling. Therefore, we conclude that TGF-β may represent a potential therapeutic target against carbofuran-mediated neurotoxicity and neurogenesis disruption.