Abstract
BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic is associated with emotional distress and significant disruptions in health-care services. These are key players in the development of nocebo phenomena. We aimed to investigate nocebo-prone behaviour in patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases (ARD) amid the COVID-19 pandemic-associated lockdown. METHODS: Consecutive patients were telephone-interviewed during the COVID-19 pandemic in Greece. Clinical and socioeconomic characteristics (eg, level of education) were recorded. For nocebo behaviour, a four-item validated questionnaire (Q-No, cut-off score>15), was used. Results were compared with pre-COVID-19 Q-No scores collected from patients followed-up in our department. RESULTS: Nocebo behaviour was detected in 51/500 (10.2%) individuals. In patients with nocebo behaviour, use of anti-hypertensives was less common (17.6% vs 31.8%, p=0.04), but a higher level of education was more common (58.8% vs 35.9%, p=0.002), compared with patients with Q-No score ≤15; the latter retained statistical significance in multivariate regression analysis (p=0.009, OR [95%CI]: 2.29, [1.23-4.25]). Total Q-No scores were higher in the COVID-19-period compared to the pre-COVID-19 era [median (range); 12 (4-20) vs 11 (4-20), p=0.02]. Among 78 patients with available Q-No questionnaires in the pre-COVID-19 era, 11 (14.1%) displayed nocebo behaviour, which increased to 16 (20.5%) amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Interim development of nocebo behaviour was also associated with higher educational level (p=0.049, OR: 3.65, 95%CI: 1.005-13.268). CONCLUSION: A considerable proportion of ARD patients manifested nocebo-prone behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic, which was more common among those with high educational level.