Abstract
Virus-like particles (VLPs) are emerging as nanoscaffolds in a variety of biomedical applications including delivery of vaccine antigens and cargo such as mRNA to mucosal surfaces. These soft, colloidal, and proteinaceous structures (capsids) are nevertheless susceptible to mucosal environmental stress factors. We cross-linked multiple capsid surface amino acid residues using homobifunctional polyethylene glycol tethers to improve the persistence and survival of the capsid to model mucosal stressors. Surface cross-linking enhanced the stability of VLPs assembled from Acinetobacter phage AP205 coat proteins in low pH (down to pH 4.0) and high protease concentration conditions (namely, in pig and mouse gastric fluids). Additionally, it increased the stiffness of VLPs under local mechanical indentation applied using an atomic force microscopy cantilever tip. Small angle X-ray scattering revealed an increase in capsid diameter after cross-linking and an increase in capsid shell thickness with the length of the PEG cross-linkers. Moreover, surface cross-linking had no effect on the VLPs' mucus translocation and accumulation on the epithelium of in vitro 3D human nasal epithelial tissues with mucociliary clearance. Finally, it did not compromise VLPs' function as vaccines in mouse subcutaneous vaccination models. Compared to PEGylation without cross-linking, the stiffness of surface cross-linked VLPs were higher for the same length of the PEG molecule, and also the lifetimes of surface cross-linked VLPs were longer in the gastric fluids. Surface cross-linking using macromolecular tethers, but not simple conjugation of these molecules, thus offers a viable means to enhance the resilience and survival of VLPs for mucosal applications.