Abstract
INTRODUCTION: This systematic review sought to understand barriers and enablers to hand hygiene in community settings. METHODS: Eligible studies addressed hand hygiene in a community setting, included a qualitative component, and were published in English between 1 January 1980 and 29 March 2023. Studies were excluded if in healthcare settings or were animal research. We searched PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, CINAHL, Global Health, Cochrane Library, Global Index Medicus, Scopus, Public Affairs Information Service Index, WHO Institutional Repository for Information Sharing, UN Digital Library and World Bank eLibrary, manually searched relevant systematic reviews' reference lists, and consulted experts. We used MaxQDA software to code papers, using the COM-B (Capability, Opportunity, Motivation and Behaviour) framework to classify barriers and enablers. We used thematic analysis to describe each COM-B subtheme identified, GRADE-CERQual to assess confidence in evidence for thematic findings and the Mixed Method Appraisal Tool (MMAT) to assess risk of study bias. RESULTS: 80 studies were included; most took place in Africa (31; 39%), South-East Asia (31; 39%) and domestic settings (54; 68%). The mean MMAT score was 4.86 (good quality). Barriers and/or enablers were reported across all COM-B constructs and subconstructs. The most reported barriers aligned with Physical Opportunity (eg, soap availability), Reflective Motivation (eg, hand hygiene not prioritised) and Automatic Motivation (eg, no habit). In contrast, the most reported enablers aligned with Automatic Motivation (ie, habit) and Reflective Motivation (ie, perception of health risk). CONCLUSION: Findings confirm that a lack of necessary resources for hand hygiene hinders practice, even when people are motivated. Results may explain why hand hygiene increases when there are acute health risks (eg, COVID-19), but decreases when risks are perceived to fade. The qualitative methodology used among the studies may have revealed a broader array of barriers and enablers than what might have been found by quantitative, researcher-driven studies, but representativeness may be limited. Evidence was also limited on alcohol-based hand rubs. Findings can inform the design of future hand hygiene initiatives. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42023429145.