Abstract
Wearable and implantable electroceuticals (WIEs) for therapeutic electrostimulation (ES) have become indispensable medical devices in modern healthcare. In addition to functionality, device miniaturization, conformability, biocompatibility, and/or biodegradability are the main engineering targets for the development and clinical translation of WIEs. Recent innovations are mainly focused on wearable/implantable power sources, advanced conformable electrodes, and efficient ES on targeted organs and tissues. Herein, nanogenerators as a hotspot wearable/implantable energy-harvesting technique suitable for powering WIEs are reviewed. Then, electrodes for comfortable attachment and efficient delivery of electrical signals to targeted tissue/organ are introduced and compared. A few promising application directions of ES are discussed, including heart stimulation, nerve modulation, skin regeneration, muscle activation, and assistance to other therapeutic modalities.