Abstract
Binding of different ligands to glucocorticoid receptor (GR) may induce different conformational changes and even trigger completely opposite biological functions. To understand the allosteric communication within the GR ligand binding domain, the folding pathway of helix 12 (H12) induced by the binding of the agonist dexamethasone (DEX), antagonist RU486, and modulator AZD9567 are explored by molecular dynamics simulations and Markov state model analysis. The ligands can regulate the volume of the activation function-2 through the residues Phe737 and Gln738. Without ligand or with agonist binding, H12 swings from inward to outward to visit different folding positions. However, the binding of RU486 or AZD9567 perturbs the structural state, and the passive antagonist state appears more stable. Structure-based virtual screening and in vitro bioassays are used to discover novel GR ligands that bias the conformation equilibria toward the passive antagonist state. HP-19 exhibits the best anti-inflammatory activity (IC50 = 0.041 ± 0.011 µm) in nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathway, which is comparable to that of DEX. HP-19 also does not induce adverse effect-related transactivation functions of GR. The novel ligands discovered here may serve as promising starting points for the development of GR modulators.