Abstract
This study investigates the effect of three-dimensional (3D) bioprinted collagen (Col) scaffolds (2% w/v collagen) loaded with autologous bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) and enriched with bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) and hydroxyapatite-based particles (HAPPs) on bone regeneration in calvarial defects in rabbits. Three implant formulations, Col-(BMP-2) (at a concentration of 80 ng/mL), Col-HAPP (1% w/v) and a mixture of the two-Col-(BMP-2)-HAPP (40 ng/mL final concentration and 0.5% HAPP), were compared with a control group C-Per containing only periosteum to assess the influence of material structure, biochemical signals and cell component on osteogenesis. Histological analysis and quantitative computed tomography (CT) imaging parameters (HU values and residual defect diameter) showed significant differences between the groups, highlighting the role of combined strategies for optimal bone repair. The control group demonstrated the weakest regeneration, expressed by minimal lamellar bone and the largest residual defect. Col-(BMP-2) stimulated moderate osteoinduction with active osteoblasts but without a fully organised lamellar structure. Col-HAΡΡ provided more advanced regeneration, with histologically observed thick osteoid lamellae, early calcification, and structured lamellar architecture, emphasising the osteoconductive role of HAΡΡs. The strongest regeneration was reported with Col-(BMP-2)-HAΡΡ, where the synergy between BMP-2, HAΡΡs and BMSCs resulted in formed osteons, well-developed cancellous bone and minimal residual defects. The established negative correlation between bone density and residual calvarial defects emphasises the relationship between mineralisation and the degree of defect filling. The new data presented demonstrate that the combination of the abovementioned structural, biochemical and cellular factors in 3D bioprinted scaffolds offers a promising strategy for osteoregeneration of complex bone defects.