Abstract
BACKGROUND: Intraoperative molecular imaging (IMI) using tumor-targeted optical contrast agents can improve cancer resections. The optimal wavelength of the IMI tracer fluorophore has never been studied in humans and has major implications for the field. To address this question, we investigated 2 spectroscopically distinct fluorophores conjugated to the same targeting ligand. METHODS: Between December 2011 and November 2021, patients with primary lung cancer were preoperatively infused with 1 of 2 folate receptor-targeted contrast tracers: a short-wavelength folate-fluorescein (EC17; λ em =520 nm) or a long-wavelength folate-S0456 (pafolacianine; λ em =793 nm). During resection, IMI was utilized to identify pulmonary nodules and confirm margins. Demographic data, lesion diagnoses, and fluorescence data were collected prospectively. RESULTS: Two hundred eighty-two patients underwent resection of primary lung cancers with either folate-fluorescein (n=71, 25.2%) or pafolacianine (n=211, 74.8%). Most tumors (n=208, 73.8%) were invasive adenocarcinomas. We identified 2 clinical applications of IMI: localization of nonpalpable lesions (n=39 lesions, 13.8%) and detection of positive margins (n=11, 3.9%). In each application, the long-wavelength tracer was superior to the short-wavelength tracer regarding depth of penetration, signal-to-background ratio, and frequency of event. Pafolacianine was more effective for detecting subpleural lesions (mean signal-to-background ratio=2.71 vs 1.73 for folate-fluorescein, P <0.0001). Limit of signal detection was 1.8 cm from the pleural surface for pafolacianine and 0.3 cm for folate-fluorescein. CONCLUSIONS: Long-wavelength near-infrared fluorophores are superior to short-wavelength IMI fluorophores in human tissues. Therefore, future efforts in all human cancers should likely focus on long-wavelength agents.