Abstract
Mycotoxins are carcinogenic secondary metabolites of fungi that have been linked to infant growth faltering. In this study, we quantified co-occurring mycotoxins in breast milk and food samples from Haryana, India, and characterized determinants of exposure. Deterministic risk assessment was conducted for mothers and infants. We examined levels of eight mycotoxins (Aflatoxin B(1) , B(2) , G(1) , G(2) , M(1) , M(2) ; Ochratoxin A, B) in 100 breast milk samples (infants 2-4 months) using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Aflatoxin B(1) (AFB(1) ), fumonisin B(1) (FB(1) ) and deoxynivalenol (DON) were detected in several food items (n = 298) using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. We report novel data on the presence of mycotoxins in breast milk samples from India. Whereas breast milk concentrations (AFM(1) median: 13.7; range: 3.9-1200 ng/L) remain low, AFM(1) was detected above regulatory limits in 27% of animal milk samples. Additionally, 41% of infants were above provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) limits for AFM(1) due to consumption of breast milk (mean: 3.04, range: 0.26-80.7 ng kg(-1) bw day(-1) ). Maternal consumption of breads (p < 0.05) was associated with breast milk AFM(1) exposure. AFB(1) (μg/kg) was detected in dried red chilies (15.7; 0-302.3), flour (3.13; 0-214.9), groundnuts (0; 0-249.1), maize (56.0; 0-836.7), pearl millet (1.85; 0-160.2), rice (0; 0-195.6), wheat (1.9; 0-196.0) and sorghum (0; 0-63.5). FB(1) (mg/kg) was detected in maize (0; 0-61.4), pearl millet (0; 0-35.4) and sorghum (0.95; 0-33.2). DON was not detected in food samples. Mothers in our study exceeded PMTDI recommendations for AFB(1) due to consumption of rice and flour (mean: 75.81; range: 35.2-318.2 ng kg(-1) bw day(-1) ). Our findings show the presence of Aflatoxin B(1) and M(1) at various levels of the food chain and in breast milk, with estimated intakes exceeding PMTDI recommendations. Aflatoxins are known carcinogens and have also been linked to stunting in children. Their presence across the food system and in breast milk is concerning, thus warranting further research to replicate and expand on our findings and to understand implications for maternal and child health.