Abstract
Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONP) have recently surged in production and use in a wide variety of biomedical and environmental applications. However, their potential long-term health effects, including carcinogenesis, are unknown. Limited research suggests IONP can induce genotoxicity and neoplastic transformation associated with particle dissolution and release of free iron ions. "Safe by design" strategies involve the modification of particle physicochemical properties to affect subsequent adverse outcomes, such as an amorphous silica coating to reduce IONP dissolution and direct interaction with cells. We hypothesized that long-term exposure to a specific IONP (nFe(2)O(3)) would induce neoplastic-like cell transformation, which could be prevented with an amorphous silica coating (SiO(2)-nFe(2)O(3)). To test this hypothesis, human bronchial epithelial cells (Beas-2B) were continuously exposed to a 0.6 μg/cm(2) administered a dose of nFe(2)O(3) (∼0.58 μg/cm(2) delivered dose), SiO(2)-nFe(2)O(3) (∼0.55 μg/cm(2) delivered dose), or gas metal arc mild steel welding fumes (GMA-MS, ∼0.58 μg/cm(2) delivered dose) for 6.5 months. GMA-MS are composed of roughly 80% iron/iron oxide and were recently classified as a total human carcinogen. Our results showed that low-dose/long-term in vitro exposure to nFe(2)O(3) induced a time-dependent neoplastic-like cell transformation, as indicated by increased cell proliferation and attachment-independent colony formation, which closely matched that induced by GMA-MS. This transformation was associated with decreases in intracellular iron, minimal changes in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and the induction of double-stranded DNA damage. An amorphous silica-coated but otherwise identical particle (SiO(2)-nFe(2)O(3)) did not induce this neoplastic-like phenotype or changes in the parameters mentioned above. Overall, the presented data suggest the carcinogenic potential of long-term nFe(2)O(3) exposure and the utility of an amorphous silica coating in a "safe by design" hazard reduction strategy, within the context of a physiologically relevant exposure scenario (low-dose/long-term), with model validation using GMA-MS.