Abstract
The growing interest in graphene derivatives is a result of their variety of applications in many fields. Due to their use, the oral route could be a potential way of entrance for the general population. This work assesses the biotransformation of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) after an in vitro digestion procedure (mouth, gastric, intestinal, and colon digestion), and its toxic effects in different cell models (HepG2, Caco-2, and 3D intestinal model). The characterization of rGO digestas evidenced the agglomeration of samples during the in vitro gastrointestinal (g.i.) digestion. Internalization of rGO was only evident in Caco-2 cells exposed to the colonic phase and no cellular defects were observed. Digestas of rGO did not produce remarkable cytotoxicity in any of the experimental models employed at the tested concentrations (up to 200 µg/mL), neither an inflammatory response. Undigested rGO has shown cytotoxic effects in Caco-2 cells, therefore these results suggest that the digestion process could prevent the systemic toxic effects of rGO. However, additional studies are necessary to clarify the interaction of rGO with the g.i. tract and its biocompatibility profile.