Abstract
BACKGROUND: Neuroinflammation in neurocognitive disorders is driven by the release of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α from brain immune cells in response to injury, infection, or p-Cresol sulfate (p-CS)-a metabolite associated with chronic kidney disease and linked to TNF-α activity. However, the underlying mechanisms through which TNF-α and p-CS influence cognitive performance remain unclear. OBJECTIVE: This study investigated the impact of TNF-α and p-CS on cognition, focusing on the role of TNF Receptor 2 (TNFR2) in cognitively normal individuals (CN; n = 36), Alzheimer's disease patients (AD; n = 85), and those with mild cognitive impairment (MCI; n = 219). METHODS: Cognitive status was assessed with ADAS-Cog 13, p-CS measured via MxP(®) Quant 500, and TNF-α/TNFR2 quantified using Human DiscoveryMAP(®). Mediation analysis explored TNFR2's role in linking p-CS, TNF-α, and cognition, with significance set at p < 0.05 and FDR controlled by the Benjamini-Hochberg method. RESULTS: The results showed that TNF-α levels were slightly higher in AD than in MCI, while TNFR2 levels were lowest in MCI, higher in CN, and highest in AD. After adjusting for age, gender, and APOE ɛ3/ɛ4 status, higher TNF-α levels were associated with higher TNFR2 levels in both MCI and AD. In MCI, elevated TNFR2 correlated with better cognitive function, indicating a possible neuroprotective role at this stage of cognitive decline. Further analysis revealed that both p-CS and TNF-α contributed to increased TNFR2 levels, which in turn supported cognitive performance. CONCLUSIONS: In short, p-CS and TNF-α may improve cognitive performance via TNFR2 in individuals with MCI.