Abstract
During mammalian palatogenesis, cranial neural crest-derived mesenchymal cells undergo osteogenic differentiation and form the hard palate, which is divided into palatine process of the maxilla and the palatine. However, it remains unknown whether these bony structures originate from the same cell lineage and how the hard palate is patterned at the molecular level. Using mice, here we report that deficiency in Shox2 (short stature homeobox 2), a transcriptional regulator whose expression is restricted to the anterior palatal mesenchyme, leads to a defective palatine process of the maxilla but does not affect the palatine. Shox2 overexpression in palatal mesenchyme resulted in a hyperplastic palatine process of the maxilla and a hypoplastic palatine. RNA sequencing and assay for transposase-accessible chromatin-sequencing analyses revealed that Shox2 controls the expression of pattern specification and skeletogenic genes associated with accessible chromatin in the anterior palate. This highlighted a lineage-autonomous function of Shox2 in patterning and osteogenesis of the hard palate. H3K27ac ChIP-Seq and transient transgenic enhancer assays revealed that Shox2 binds distal-acting cis-regulatory elements in an anterior palate-specific manner. Our results suggest that the palatine process of the maxilla and palatine arise from different cell lineages and differ in ossification mechanisms. Shox2 evidently controls osteogenesis of a cell lineage and contributes to the palatine process of the maxilla by interacting with distal cis-regulatory elements to regulate skeletogenic gene expression and to pattern the hard palate. Genome-wide Shox2 occupancy in the developing palate may provide a marker for identifying active anterior palate-specific gene enhancers.