Background
Moonmilk represents complex secondary structures and model systems to investigate the interaction between microorganisms and carbonatic rocks. Grotta Nera is characterized by numerous moonmilk speleothems of exceptional size hanging from the ceiling, reaching over two meters in length. In this work we combined microbiological analyses with analytical pyrolysis and carbon stable isotope data to determine the molecular composition of these complex moonmilk structures as well as the composition of the associated microbiota.
Conclusions
The moonmilk deposits can be divided into diverse niches following oxygen and water gradients, which are characterized by specific microbial taxa and organic matter composition originating from microbial activities or deriving from soil and vegetation above the cave. The metabolic capacities allowing the biodegradation of complex polymers from the vegetation above the cave and the use of inorganic nitrogen and atmospheric gases might have fueled the development of complex microbial communities that, by interacting with the carbonatic rock, led to the formation of these massive moonmilk speleothems in Grotta Nera.
Results
Three moonmilk structures were dissected into the apical, lateral, and core parts, which shared similar values of microbial abundance, richness, and carbon isotopes but different water content, microbiota composition, and organic matter. Moonmilk parts/niches showed higher values of microbial biomass and biodiversity compared to the bedrock (not showing moonmilk development signs) and the waters (collected below dripping moonmilk), indicating the presence of more complex microbial communities linked to carbonate rock interactions and biomineralization processes. Although each moonmilk niche was characterized by a specific microbiota as well as a distinct organic carbon profile, statistical analyses clustered the samples in two main groups, one including the moonmilk lateral part and the bedrock and the other including the core and apical parts of the speleothem. The organic matter profile of both these groups showed two well-differentiated organic carbon groups, one from cave microbial activity and the other from the leaching of vascular plant litter above the cave. Correlation between organic matter composition and microbial taxa in the different moonmilk niches were found, linking the presence of condensed organic compounds in the apical part with the orders Nitrospirales and Nitrosopumilales, while different taxa were correlated with aromatic, lignin, and polysaccharides in the moonmilk core. These findings are in line with the metabolic potential of these microbial taxa suggesting how the molecular composition of the preserved organic matter drives the microbiota colonizing the different moonmilk niches. Furthermore, distinct bacterial and archaeal taxa known to be involved in the metabolism of inorganic nitrogen and C1 gases (CO2 and CH4) (Nitrospira, Nitrosopumilaceae, Nitrosomonadaceae, Nitrosococcaceae, and novel taxa of Methylomirabilota and Methanomassiliicoccales) were enriched in the core and apical parts of the moonmilk, probably in association with their contribution to biogeochemical cycles in Grotta Nera ecosystem and moonmilk development. Conclusions: The moonmilk deposits can be divided into diverse niches following oxygen and water gradients, which are characterized by specific microbial taxa and organic matter composition originating from microbial activities or deriving from soil and vegetation above the cave. The metabolic capacities allowing the biodegradation of complex polymers from the vegetation above the cave and the use of inorganic nitrogen and atmospheric gases might have fueled the development of complex microbial communities that, by interacting with the carbonatic rock, led to the formation of these massive moonmilk speleothems in Grotta Nera.