Abstract
HIV-1 has a broad range of nuanced interactions with the immune system, and the incorporation of cellular proteins by nascent virions continues to redefine our understanding of the virus-host relationship. Proteins located at the sites of viral egress can be selectively incorporated into the HIV-1 envelope, imparting new functions and phenotypes onto virions, and impacting viral spread and disease. Using virion capture assays and western blot, we show that HIV-1 can incorporate the myeloid antigen CD14 into its viral envelope. Virion-incorporated CD14 remained biologically active and able to bind its natural ligand, bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), as demonstrated by flow virometry and immunoprecipitation assays. Using a Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) reporter cell line, we also demonstrated that virions with bound LPS can trigger TLR4 signaling to activate transcription factors that regulate inflammatory gene expression. Complementary assays with THP-1 monocytes demonstrated enhanced secretion of inflammatory cytokines like tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and the C-C chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5), when exposed to LPS-loaded virus. These data highlight a new type of interplay between HIV-1 and the myeloid cell compartment, a previously well-established cellular contributor to HIV-1 pathogenesis and inflammation. Persistent gut inflammation is a hallmark of chronic HIV-1 infection, and contributing to this effect is the translocation of microbes across the gut epithelium. Our data herein provide proof of principle that virion-incorporated CD14 could be a novel mechanism through which HIV-1 can drive chronic inflammation, facilitated by HIV-1 particles binding bacterial LPS and initiating inflammatory signaling in TLR4-expressing cells.IMPORTANCEHIV-1 establishes a lifelong infection accompanied by numerous immunological changes. Inflammation of the gut epithelia, exacerbated by the loss of mucosal T cells and cytokine dysregulation, persists during HIV-1 infection. Feeding back into this loop of inflammation is the translocation of intestinal microbes across the gut epithelia, resulting in the systemic dissemination of bacterial antigens, like lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Our group previously demonstrated that the LPS receptor, CD14, can be readily incorporated by HIV-1 particles, supporting previous clinical observations of viruses derived from patient plasma. We now show that CD14 can be incorporated by several primary HIV-1 isolates and that this virion-incorporated CD14 can remain functional, enabling HIV-1 to bind to LPS. This subsequently allowed CD14+ virions to transfer LPS to monocytic cells, eliciting pro-inflammatory signaling and cytokine secretion. We posit here that virion-incorporated CD14 is a potential contributor to the dysregulated immune responses present in the setting of HIV-1 infection.