Abstract
Evidence indicates that most cancer deaths are caused by tumor invasion and metastasis. Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a tumor of the bile duct epithelium characterized by slow growth, rapid metastasis and poor prognosis. Caged xanthones are extracted from gamboge, a dry resin exuded by Garcinia hanbury. These compounds have been reported to be cytotoxic to several types of cancer cells, without affecting normal cells. The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of isomorellin on the inhibition of CCA cell (KKU-100) viability, migration, invasion and the expression of invasion-regulated proteins. Cytotoxicity of isomorellin was evaluated using a sulforhodamine B assay. The anti-migratory and anti-invasive effects of isomorellin on KKU-100 cells were assessed using wound healing and chamber invasion assays, respectively. Furthermore, the activities of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)-2 and -9, and urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) were also investigated. The expression levels of proteins regulating invasion were determined via western blot analysis. The cell viability of KKU-100 cells was decreased following treatment with isomorellin in a dose-dependent manner, with IC50 values at 24, 48 and 72 h of 3.46±0.19, 3.78±0.02 and 4.01±0.01 µM, respectively. Wound healing and chamber invasion assays indicated that isomorellin significantly inhibited KKU-100 cell migration and invasion in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, isomorellin significantly inhibited cancer cell migration and invasion abilities via focal adhesion kinase (FAK), protein kinase C (PKC), the phosphorylated (p)-p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, and nuclear factor (NF)-κB expression and translocation to the nucleus, thus resulting in downregulation of MMP-2, uPA and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression. Therefore, inhibition of MMP-2, uPA and COX-2 expression may result in decreased CCA cell invasion ability. These data demonstrated for the first time that the suppression of KKU-100 cell viability, invasion and migration, and downregulation of NF-κB, MMP-2, uPA and the p-p38 MAPK pathway, may result in isomorellin-mediated anti-invasiveness.