Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a highly effective scaffold manufacturing technique that may revolutionize tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. The use of scaffolds, along with growth factors and cells, remains among the most promising approaches to organ regeneration. However, the applications of hard 3D-printed scaffolds may be limited by their poor surface properties, which play a crucial role in cell recruitment and infiltration, tissue-scaffold integration, and anti-inflammatory properties. However, various prerequisites must be met before 3D-printed scaffolds can be applied clinically to the human body. Consequently, various attempts have been made to modify the surfaces, porosities, and mechanical properties of these scaffolds. Techniques that involve the chemical and material modification of surfaces can also be applied to enhance scaffold efficacy. This review summarizes the characteristics and discusses the developmental directions of the latest 3D-printing technologies according to its intended application in unmet clinical needs.