Abstract
Some insects possess complex three-dimensional (3D) structures that develop under the old cuticle prior to the last imaginal molt. Adult treehoppers (Insecta: Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha: Membracidae) have one such complex 3D structure, known as a helmet, on their dorsal side. The adult helmet likely forms inside the nymphal pronotum during the final instar nymphal stage. Previous morphological studies have reported that the adult helmet is a large, bi-layered, plywood-like structure, whereas the nymphal pronotum is a monolayer, sheath-like structure. The adult helmet is much larger than nymphal helmet. Thus, the emergence of the adult helmet involves two structural transitions: a transition from a monolayer, sheath-like pronotum to a bi-layer, plywood-like helmet, and a transition in size from small to large. However, when, how, and in what order these transitions occur within the nymphal cuticle is largely unknown. To determine how adult helmet development occurs under the nymphal cuticle, in the present study we describe the morphology of the final adult helmet and investigate developmental trajectories of the helmet during the final instar nymphal stage. We used micro-CT, scanning electron microscope and paraffin sections for morphological observations, and used Antianthe expansa as a model species. We found that the structural transition (from monolayer, sheath-like structure to bi-layer, roof-like structure) occurs through the formation of a "miniature" of the adult helmet during the middle stage of development and that subsequently, extensive folding and furrows form, which account for the increase in size. We suggest that the making of a "miniature" is the key developmental step for the formation of various 3D structures of treehopper helmets.